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Development EconomicsEthiopia’s Tigray War, 2020–2022: The Cost of Conflict in a Fast-Growing EconomyEthiopia's real GDP grew by an average of about 9.8% a year in 2010–2019, according to World Bank data.Development EconomicsMyanmar Since the 2021 Coup: Conflict, Sanctions and a Shrinking EconomyReal GDP fell by 9.0% in FY2020/21 and by a further 12.0% in FY2021/22, on the World Bank's April–March fiscal-year series.Development EconomicsSudan’s Civil War, 2023 Onwards: Economic Collapse and FamineReal GDP fell by 23.5% in 2023 and 19.3% in 2024, according to the IMF. The World Bank's estimates are −29.4% and −13.5%.Development EconomicsRussia and Ukraine, 2022 Onwards: Two War Economies and the Sanctions TestUkraine's real GDP fell by 28.8% in 2022. By 2025 it was still 21% smaller than in 2021.Development EconomicsThe Iran Wars of 2025–2026 and the Strait of Hormuz: Oil, Shipping and the Gulf EconomiesAbout 20 million barrels a day of oil, roughly a fifth of world consumption, passed through the Strait of Hormuz in 2024. In September 2026 the…Development EconomicsIsrael and Gaza, 2023–2026: The Economic Cost for Israel, Gaza, the West Bank and the RegionThe Hamas-led attack of 7 October 2023 killed about 1,200 people in Israel, mostly civilians, and 251 people were taken hostage.Development EconomicsPaying for War: Taxes, Borrowing, Money Printing and AidThe United States paid for the First World War with about 58% borrowing from the public, 22% taxes and about 20% money creation, according to economic…Development EconomicsHow War Hits an Economy: A Framework and the Indicators to WatchWorld military spending reached a record $2,887 billion in 2025, about 2.5% of world GDP. It was the 11th year in a row of increases.Mathematical EconomicsProfit Maximisation with Calculus: First and Second Order ConditionsSetting the derivative to zero finds a flat point - but flat points can be maxima or minima, and choosing wrong reverses your answer. The first…StatisticsPaired vs Independent t-test: How to Tell Them ApartSame test name, completely different setups. One question decides it: is each value in group A naturally linked to a specific value in group B? Why…StatisticsZ-Scores and the Normal Distribution: A Plain-English GuideA z-score is how many standard deviations a value sits from the mean — a universal ruler that lets you compare across any scale. The z…StatisticsNull vs Alternative Hypothesis: How to Set Them Up CorrectlySet the hypotheses up wrong and the whole test answers the wrong question. The three rules that never change: hypotheses are about the population not the…
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